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What are Ultra-Processed Foods (UPFs)? Written by Freya Torkildsen Introduction  When looking for dietary advice, the phrase ‘avoid ultra-processed foods’ is often thrown around as one of the rules for having a healthy diet, but what does that actually mean? And are all processed foods really that bad for our health?  Ultra-processed foods, in particular, have become a growing concern in public health. Regularly consuming these foods has been linked to poor overall diet quality and an increasing number of negative health issues; therefore, they are an important topic to understand in today’s food environment.  What are Ultra-Processed Foods?  Ultra-processed foods (UPFs) are foods which contain a formulation of ingredients, typically created via a series of industrial processing techniques to create a product which bears little resemblance to the original ingredients. In other words, UPFs contain one or more ingredients that wouldn’t be found in your kitchen, such as chemical based preservatives, emulsifiers, sweeteners and artificial colours and flavours (Coulson, 2025).  Examples of UPFs may include sweetened breakfast cereals, energy drinks, ready meals or sweets. These foods are often very convenient, palatable and widely available, which helps explain why they make up a substantial portion of people’s diets.  However, it’s important to recognise that food processing itself is not inherently harmful. In fact, many food processing techniques play important roles in food safety, nutrition and affordability. For example: (Food Standards Agency, 2024) Processing can also improve a food’s taste and texture, increase its shelf life and make food more affordable and accessible. Understanding the difference between necessary processing and ultra-processing is key.  Ultra-processed Foods vs Processed Foods  The terms ‘processed’ and ‘ultra-processed’ are used to describe how a product has been made rather than how healthy it is.  According to the Department of Agriculture, processed foods are any raw agricultural commodities altered from their original state. This includes, washing, cutting, heating, canning, freezing, packaging etc. For example, pre-washed, peeled and chopped carrots are an example of a product which has been processed. While processing includes these basic steps, foods are considered ultra-processed when they contain preservatives, flavourings and food additives.  The Nova food classification system defines food into four categories ranging from least to most processed: (Harguth, 2024) Why Ultra-Processed Foods Aren’t All ‘Bad’ for Us UPFs are typically portrayed as something we should avoid entirely, but the reality is far more nuanced. Not all processed foods or even all UPFs are inherently harmful. In fact, many foods that support a healthy diet undergo some degree of processing.  Several everyday staple foods fall into this category:  These products demonstrate that processing in itself isn’t the issue, and in many cases they help to address nutritional gaps and increase accessibility.   When UPFs become problematic UPFs become problematic when they dominate the contents of our diet. Recent evidence indicates that UPFs contribute to approximately 50% of total dietary intake in children, highlighting how prevalent these products have become within modern eating patterns (Warrender, 2024). Foods with poor nutrient density, high sugar and fat contents in excess are when health issues can arise.  Being selective about the types of processed foods we choose can make a meaningful difference. For example: A Balanced Approach is More Realistic than Total Avoidance  Completely avoiding UPFs is neither practical nor necessary. A more sustainable approach is to prioritise balance and moderation. Overly restrictive rules can lead to cycles of guilt surrounding food, bingeing or yo-yo dieting, whereas flexible, more informed choices can support long-term healthy dietary patterns. Read our blog on ‘Ditching Diets – Why Dieting Is Designed To Fail’ The UK’s Eatwell Guide (pictured below) reflects this approach. It emphasises limiting foods and drinks high in fat, sugar and or salt, many of which fall into the UPF category. By following these guidelines, we are also likely to reduce the amount of UPFs we are consuming without eliminating them entirely from our diet (Food Standards Agency, 2024) (GOV.UK, 2016) Conclusions  UPFs cover a wide and varied group of food products. While some UPFs are unhealthy and may not hold high nutritional value, others can still form part of a balanced diet. For example a ready meal high in saturated fat or salt is classed as Ultra-processed, but so is a shop-bought wholegrain loaf of bread, a food which can contribute positively to dietary intake.   Rather than focusing on eliminating all UPFs, a more realistic and evidence-based approach is to consider overall dietary patterns. Increasing mindful food choices and aligning eating habits with supported guidance such as the Eatwell Guide provides a practical reality for improving diet quality without unnecessary restriction. If you want further support and accountability, speak with a Registered Nutritionist or Dietitian. References Coulson, M. (2025). What Are Ultra-Processed Foods? | Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health. [online] Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health. Available at: https://publichealth.jhu.edu/2025/what-are-ultra-processed-foods [Accessed 7 Jan. 2026]. Food Standards Agency (2024). Ultra-processed Foods | Food Standards Agency. [online] www.food.gov.uk. Available at: https://www.food.gov.uk/safety-hygiene/ultra-processed-foods [Accessed 7 Jan. 2026]. Gov.UK (2016). The Eatwell Guide . Gov.UK. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/the-eatwell-guide [Accessed 10 Jan. 2026]. Harguth, A. (2024). What you should know about processed foods. [online] www.mayoclinichealthsystem.org. Available at: https://www.mayoclinichealthsystem.org/hometown-health/speaking-of-health/processed-foods-what-you-should-know [Accessed 8 Jan. 2026]. Warrender, E. (2024). A new study shows ultra-processed food makes up 59% of children’s food. [online] Open Access Government. Available at: https://www.openaccessgovernment.org/a-new-study-shows-ultra-processed-food-makes-up-59-of-childrens-food/183825/ [Accessed 12 Mar. 2026]. 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Nutrients That Support Immune Function Written by Freya Torkildsen  Introduction  What we eat has a powerful impact on our health, and the nutrients within our food play a key role in supporting our bodily functions. As we progress through the winter months and cold and flu season peaks, being more mindful of the nutrients we consume becomes increasingly important, as they can help support our immune health. When we don’t get enough of these nutrients, there is an increased risk of disease and infections due to an ill-functioning immune system (Munteanu and Schwartz, 2022). Key nutrients for a healthy immune system  There are several key vitamins and minerals which play a crucial role in supporting immune function, helping the body defend itself against infection and illness. These key nutrients include:  These vitamins and minerals play an important role in keeping your immune system strong. They help your body produce and support immune cells, reduce inflammation, and protect your cells from damage caused by oxidative stress – a natural process that can harm cells over time (National Cancer Institute, 2011). When oxidative stress builds up, it may contribute to long-term health problems. By helping to keep this process in balance, these nutrients support your body’s ability to fight off infection and stay well (British Heart Foundation, 2020; National Institutes of Health, 2023). How can you incorporate these into your diet? Vitamin A : Cheese, Eggs, oily fish (such as salmon, sardines, trout, or mackerel), fortified low-fat spreads B Vitamins :  Pork, Poultry, Peanuts, soya beans Broccoli, brussels sprouts, leafy green vegetables (such as cabbage, kale, and spinach), peas Meat, fish, milk, cheese Vitamin C : citrus fruit, peppers, strawberries, blackcurrants Vitamin D :   The body creates Vitamin D from direct sunlight on the skin outdoors; therefore, supplementing 10mcg daily is the most effective way to reach the daily recommendations.   However vitamin D is also found in a small number of foods:  oily fish, red meat, egg yolks, fortified foods (such as some fat spreads and breakfast cereals) & liver  Copper : Nuts, Shellfish, offal Iron : Liver, red meat, beans, nuts Selenium : brazil nuts, fish, meat, eggs Zinc : Meat, shellfish, dairy foods, bread (NHS , 2020) 4 recipes to help incorporate these nutrients into your diet The recipes below are designed to help you easily incorporate the key vitamins and minerals that support a healthy immune system into your everyday diet.  Sweet Potato & Lentil Soup  This nutrient-dense soup is packed with a variety of vitamins and minerals that contribute to immune function:  You can find the full recipe here Thai Spiced Butternut Squash Soup For those who prefer a bit more spice, this soup is also packed with a variety of nutrients which contribute to a healthy immune system:  You can find the full recipe here Salmon, lemony asparagus, roasted vegetables and mash This colourful, nutrient rich bowl provides a large range of essential immune boosting nutrients: You can find the full recipe here Roasted salmon with sesame & cannellini beans This hearty meal provides a rich mix of immune boosting ingredients:  You can find the full recipe here Conclusion The amount and type of nutrients we consume are directly linked to the health of our immune system; a weakened immune system may be connected to inadequate nutritional intake.  It’s crucial to include these vital vitamins and minerals for immune support if you want to ensure your immune system continues to be an optimal environment for preventing illness and infection. Reference list British Heart Foundation (2020). Boosting immunity. [online] Bhf.org.uk. Available at: https://www.bhf.org.uk/informationsupport/heart-matters-magazine/nutrition/ask-the-expert/boosting-immunity [Accessed 2 Feb. 2026]. Munteanu, C. and Schwartz, B. (2022). The Relationship between Nutrition and the Immune System. Frontiers in Nutrition, [online] 9(1), pp.1–23. doi:https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2022.1082500. National Cancer Institute (2011). Oxidative Stress. [online] www.cancer.gov. Available at: https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/oxidative-stress [Accessed 14 Feb. 2026]. National Institutes of Health (2023). Office of Dietary Supplements – Dietary Supplements for Immune Function and Infectious Diseases. [online] ods.od.nih.gov. Available at: https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/ImmuneFunction-HealthProfessional/ [Accessed 2 Feb. 2026]. NHS (2020). Overview – Vitamins and minerals. [online] NHS. Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/vitamins-and-minerals/ [Accessed 2 Feb. 2026].

Ditching Diets – Why Dieting Is Designed To Fail  Introduction  The New Year often marks a fresh start, where many of us set New Year’s resolutions, whether that’s picking up a new hobby or aiming to lose weight. It’s typically a time when we tend to become more aware of our eating habits, often influenced by post-festive guilt. As a result, many people begin the year by starting a new diet. However, as the new year unfolds and diets take centre stage, it’s important to recognise that they aren’t a reliable solution for the long term. Despite the abundance of weight loss programmes available, success rates remain discouraging, with around half of individuals regaining the weight they lost within two years, a cycle commonly referred to as yo-yo dieting.  Weight gain typically results from a combination of high-calorie foods rich in fats and sugars and large portion sizes alongside sedentary behaviours. Most diets attempt to address these factors by promoting lifestyle change, such as reducing overall calorie intake, limiting processed foods and alcohol and increasing fruit and vegetable intake.  Diet Failure  Despite various diet methods offering significant weight loss potential, long-term weight maintenance proves challenging, resulting in weight regain. In pursuit of results, individuals turn to a wide range of approaches, including detox or cleanse diets, ketogenic and low-carbohydrate diets, intermittent fasting and weight-loss supplements.  Weight loss studies found that within two years, over 50% of the weight lost was regained, and by five years, it was over 80% (Khattab, 2024).  Consequently, unsuccessful weight loss attempts can lead to a decline in obesity treatment-seeking behaviour, with many viewing weight loss efforts as futile. Why/How diets fail  Most diets appear to be successful in the short term because they focus on reducing calorie intake, resulting in initial weight loss. However, maintaining this weight loss over time is far more difficult.  The brain perceives weight loss as a threat to survival, prompting it to lower metabolism and increase hunger (Khattab, 2024). Drastically reducing calorie intake also results in increased fat storage and muscle loss (Khattab, 2024). This effect is amplified with extreme diets, where weight tends to be regained more rapidly with a higher fat percentage.  Factors that contribute to diet failure include:  How dieting makes people feel  Dieting often affects more than just eating habits as it can significantly impact how individuals feel about food, their bodies and their self-worth. Societal norms surrounding body weight and food can put pressure on individuals to conform to unrealistic body standards which can, in turn, negatively influence dieting outcomes and increase vulnerability to disordered eating behaviours.  For many people, dieting is closely associated with low self-esteem, guilt and mood fluctuations. Comfort eating is a common coping mechanism during periods of emotional distress; however, dieting can intensify these issues. When dieting goals are not met, individuals may experience disappointment and feel like they have failed, blaming themselves, further increasing stress and reinforcing emotional eating behaviours.  Over time, these repeated cycles of restriction and guilt can lead to the development of disordered eating patterns, especially when restrictive food rules are normalised. Dieting also reduces the enjoyment of eating, making it feel stressful or even scary, with certain foods labelled as forbidden and shameful. It can also create issues in people’s social lives; eating out with friends and family can become a trigger for anxiety, and loss of hunger cues from restrictive eating behaviours can influence family meal times (Van and Van, 2022).  It’s important to recognise that there is no one-size-fits-all approach to dieting. Factors such as food preferences, metabolic differences and lifestyle demands play a significant role in determining what is sustainable and supportive of long-term well-being. Therefore, when dietary approaches are not met with the anticipated results, it’s important not to feel disheartened.  Alternative approaches to dieting  Diet failure isn’t purely a result of personal barriers but a predictable response to food restriction. Understanding the biological, psychological and social barriers to long-term weight loss allows for more compassionate, sustainable approaches to health that move beyond diet culture altogether.  Adopting mindfulness-based approaches to eating can help to change your eating habits more sustainably and, as a result, contribute to weight management.  Mindful eating is an approach to food that focuses on being fully present while you’re eating. It aims to increase your awareness of your thoughts, senses and feelings during and after eating. Research has shown that mindful eating can help to regulate appetite, aid digestion, and make eating a more enjoyable experience, as well as support emotional eating habits.  How can you eat more mindfully?: For more information and tips, read my previous blog on mindful eating vs intuitive eating (BDA, 2020) Setting realistic goals while still enjoying the foods you love in moderation is essential for long-term success. Combining familiar food favourites with new foods can make dietary changes feel more manageable and increase engagement with healthier eating patterns. Social support from family and friends also plays a key role in sustaining these changes.  Conclusion  As we enter the New Year, it is essential that we focus on shifting our focus away from diet culture and more towards flexible, mindful approaches that can ensure weight loss while supporting both physical and mental well-being. By setting realistic goals, enjoying food in moderation and focusing on sustainability rather than restriction, individuals are more likely to achieve long-term intended health benefits without the harmful cycle associated with dieting. Written by Freya Torkildsen Reference list Aleksandra Bojarczuk, Egorova, E.S., Dzitkowska-Zabielska, M. and Ahmetov, I.I. (2024). Genetics of exercise and diet-induced fat loss efficiency: A systematic review. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, [online] 23(1), pp.236–257. doi:https://doi.org/10.52082/jssm.2024.236. BDA (2020). Mindful Eating. [online] www.bda.uk.com. Available at: https://www.bda.uk.com/resource/mindful-eating.html [Accessed 19 Dec. 2025]. Dvorak, T. (2025). Why Diets Are Destined to Fail and How to Break the Cycle. [online] University of Utah Health | University of Utah Health. Available at: https://healthcare.utah.edu/the-scope/health-library/all/2025/01/why-diets-are-destined-fail-and-how-break-cycle [Accessed 18 Dec. 2025]. Khattab, R. (2024). Weight Loss Programs: Why Do They Fail? A Multidimensional Approach for Obesity

Staying nourished and motivated through the festive season Written by Millie Rose Have you ever found yourself skipping meals around Christmas and New Year to ‘save up’ for later? Christmas and New Year can be an anxious time for individuals with various goals, like weight management or managing symptoms. However, this is a time to enjoy the social opportunities and some time off work. Whilst it is important that you progress with your goals, you do not have to restrict your diet to enjoy the holidays. This blog will delve into nutrition, behaviour and fitness during Christmas and the New Year, concluding with my top 7 tips to stay healthy this Christmas whilst working and socialising! Nutrition Portion sizes Foods consumed at Christmas are often richer, due to added butter, oils, alcohol and sugars, and often eaten in larger quantities. Whilst you should eat traditional foods, try to manage portion sizes. You may do this by: Increased high sugar snacks and drinks During Christmas, we are exposed to indulging in delicious seasonal snacks and drinks, such as chocolates, hot chocolate and mulled wine. To establish healthy eating habits (which do include indulging in a bit of chocolate occasionally!): Increased fat and salt intake Foods such as gravy, roasted foods in oil, cheese and party foods tend to be high in fat and salt, particularly if you buy them pre-made (WHO, 2012; BHF, 2025). To reduce salt intake: To reduce saturated fat: Increased alcohol intake Social events increase alcohol consumption. Alcohol is high in calories and can make hunger cues difficult to interpret. Furthermore, drinking alcohol can decrease hydration if soft drinks or water are not consumed. Irregular eating patterns Have you ever found yourself skipping meals around Christmas and New Year to ‘save up’ for later? This is common, but it will often lead to grazing later and more being eaten. As well as this, during the busy festive period, we generally eat later too. Try: Lower protein and fibre intake Protein and fibre help you feel satisfied after eating a meal. During Christmas, carbohydrates and fats can often crowd your plate, leading to peaks in your blood sugar levels and grazing later. When you are eating: Temporary weight gain We have discussed a few factors contributing to temporary weight gain during Christmas and the New Year. For example, excess food consumption and higher salt intake and alcohol may lead to temporary water retention and fat storage. However, by using the suggestions provided, you can reduce the discomfort associated with water retention and bloating. Fitness Did you know that walking after big meals reduces your blood sugar? By doing this, you reduce the blood sugar spike (Colberg et al., 2009; Buffey et al., 2022). Staying active is not just important for your physical health, but also for your mental health. Staying active can reduce stress, which can be heightened during the Christmas holidays, and improve your mood and sleep. Important: We don’t need to do more exercise, so we can eat certain foods Remember.. You should maintain an active lifestyle all year round. This should not change at Christmas or New Year. Try different types of exercise and see what you enjoy the most (you’re most likely to maintain this!). Exercise regime’s are also likely to change depending on what stage of life you are at. If you are a parent, time is going to be a big barrier for you. Find something that fits around your busy schedule such as something home-based. There are lots of forms of exercise, including social and individual movements: Top 7 tips to stay healthy this Christmas whilst working and socialising: Remember: You don’t need a New Year’s resolution to make healthy changes. Long-term change happens when motivation, opportunity and capability is consistent. By making a few subtle changes over a long period of time, you will achieve your goals and sustain them! References British Heart Foundation (2025). Fats explained. [online] British Heart Foundation. Available at: https://www.bhf.org.uk/informationsupport/heart-matters-magazine/nutrition/sugar-salt-and-fat/fats-explained. Buffey, A.J., Herring, M.P., Langley, C.K., Donnelly, A.E. and Carson, B.P. (2022). The acute effects of interrupting prolonged sitting time in adults with standing and light-intensity walking on biomarkers of cardiometabolic health in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Medicine, 52(8). doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-022-01649-4. Colberg, S.R., Zarrabi, L., Bennington, L., Nakave, A., Thomas Somma, C., Swain, D.P. and Sechrist, S.R. (2009). Postprandial walking is better for lowering the glycemic effect of dinner than pre-dinner exercise in type 2 diabetic individuals. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, [online] 10(6), pp.394–397. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jamda.2009.03.015. World Health Organization (2012). Examples of sodium content in various foods and food groups. [online] www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK133307/.

The Impact of Alcohol When Trying to Conceive and in Pregnancy Introduction Alcohol is a common part of socialising and relaxing around friends. While this is generally acceptable in moderation, when you are trying to conceive or are pregnant, there are different recommendations to protect you and your baby. Recently, there has been a growing awareness of alcohol, fertility and pregnancy. This blog will explore effects of alcohol on conception and pregnancy and provide you with some alternatives so you can still have fun whilst socialising, without missing out on some delicious drinks! Does alcohol hinder chances of conception? Alcohol decreases the chance of conception. Why? Alcohol can affect hormones and ovulation (Emanuele, Wezeman and Emanuele, 2024) Men drinking alcohol also reduces the chance of conception (Finelli, Mottola and Agarwal, 2021) Moderate drinking may delay conception NICE recommend 1-2 units once or twice a week, at most (NICE, 2017). This may look like 1 small glass of wine or a half pint of beer. However, the chances of conception are highest if you and your partner stop drinking while trying to conceive. Alcohol during pregnancy NICE do not recommend any consumption of alcohol during pregnancy. This is because there is no safe level of consumption of alcohol in pregnancy. Any consumption of alcohol in pregnancy increases the risk of: Why? Alcohol passes through the placenta, so your baby would be exposed to the alcohol you drink. Without a fully developed liver, this is very dangerous for your baby’s health and development. Drinking alcohol during pregnancy may lead to Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD). Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder causes difficulties such as: (CDC, 2024; CanFASD, 2017) The more alcohol consumed, the greater the risk for you and your baby’s health. There is no safe amount of alcohol that can be consumed during pregnancy. Avoiding alcohol during pregnancy supports your health and your babies development. There is always a risk, even occasional drinks (NHS, 2023) (NICE, 2022). Alcoholic drink alternatives A lot of non-alcoholic drinks are very high in sugar. Here are some alternatives that aren’t super high in sugar: Conclusion Reducing alcohol consumption may increase the chances of conceiving and protect the health of you and your unborn baby. However, there is no safe amount to drink during pregnancy. Try some of the alternatives in this blog to keep social events fun at this exciting time of your life! If you are struggling, please reach out to a healthcare professional. For more information on Nutrition during Pregnancy, read here Written by nutrition student Millie Rose, reviewed and edited by Niamh Dunne References CanFASD. (2017). Basic Information – CanFASD. [online] Available at: https://canfasd.ca/topics/basic-information/. CDC (2024). About Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASDs). [online] Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders. Available at: https://www.cdc.gov/fasd/about/index.html. Emanuele, M.A., Wezeman, F. and Emanuele, N.V. (2024). Alcohol’s Effects on Female Reproductive Function. Alcohol Research & Health, [online] 26(4), p.274. Available at: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6676690/. Finelli, R., Mottola, F. and Agarwal, A. (2021). Impact of Alcohol Consumption on Male Fertility Potential: A Narrative Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(1), p.328. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010328. Jensen, T.K., Hjollund, N.H.I., Henriksen, T.B., Scheike, T., Kolstad, H., Giwercman, A., Ernst, E., Bonde, J.P., Skakkebak, N.E. and Olsen, J. (1998). Does moderate alcohol consumption affect fertility? Follow up study among couples planning first pregnancy. BMJ, 317(7157), pp.505–510. doi:https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.317.7157.505. NHS (2023). Drinking alcohol while pregnant. Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/pregnancy/keeping-well/drinking-alcohol-while-pregnant/. NICE (2017) Fertility problems: assessment and treatment. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg156/resources/fertility-problems-assessment-and-treatment-35109634660549 NICE (2022) Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Available at: https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/qs204/chapter/Quality-statement-1-Advice-on-avoiding-alcohol-in-pregnancy

Can Our Diet Help Manage Menopause Symptoms? Written by Millie Rose What is menopause? Menopause occurs when the hormone estrogen reduces and your period eventually stops. This usually occurs between 45 and 55, although it can happen earlier. It can happen naturally or surgically, by hysterectomy. In the lead up to menopause, you may begin to have symptoms but still have periods, this is called perimenopause. After 12 months without a period, menopause is determined. Made using Canva What symptoms does menopause cause? Menopause and perimenopause can be difficult for many women, causing anxiety, brain fog, hot flushes, and irregular periods. Many women have these symptoms during perimenopause and after menopause. As well as this, a lot of women also struggle with weight gain during this time. HRT, hormone replacement therapy, is a common treatment prescribed by doctors to treat symptoms of menopause or perimenopause. This treatment works by increasing the levels of oestrogen, a hormone that naturally decreases at menopause. (NHS, 2019) While HRT can be used to treat symptoms, many women still struggle with weight gain at menopause. For women in menopause, or perimenopause, it may be useful to use a combination of HRT and small changes in dietary habits to improve symptoms. As well as this, at menopause, there are some nutrients that may need more attention to, in order to protect your body. This blog will delve into key nutrients at menopause, how your diet can affect symptoms, how to eat for your symptoms and behaviour techniques to keep menopause weight off; to make you feel the most comfortable in your body. Read until the end for a sample menopause meal plan! Key nutrients at menopause Vitamin D and Calcium The reduction in estrogen can lead to reduced bone density, which can lead to osteoporosis, a disease which weakens bones and increases the chance of fractures (NHS, 2022). During this time, adequate consumption of calcium and vitamin D is vital. Adults need 700mg of calcium per day, this should be achieved through diet unless advised by a healthcare professional otherwise. In the UK, it is advised to take a 10mg vitamin D tablet per day during autumn and winter. Foods high in Calcium include: (NHS, 2020) Foods high in Vitamin D: (NHS, 2020) Magnesium Women during menopause may feel more tired or fatigued, which may lead to increased need for naps during the day. When deficient in magnesium, these symptoms can be heightened. Foods high in Magnesium: (NHS, 2020) B vitamins- B1, B5, B6 The different B vitamins are essential for heart function, mental performance and regulating hormones. This is vital during menopause when hormones are changing. Foods high in B vitamins: B vitamin sources (NHS, 2020) Zinc During menopause, some women experience dry skin, brittle hair, and nails. Zinc can improve this, as well as immunity and mood stability. Foods high in Zinc: (NHS, 2020) (BNF, 2022) How can diet affect menopause symptoms? The British Menopause Society have identified that caffeine, alcohol, and spices may increase hot flushes and disturb sleep (BMS, 2023). Estrogen normally enhances the fullness hormone, leptin, and suppresses ghrelin, the hunger hormone, however both decrease at menopause. Due to the removal of some of the estrogen, the body is less sensitive to leptin, making it more difficult to know when you’re full and cravings increase, making it more likely for you to put on weight at menopause. There is evidence to show this in animals, but further research is needed for clarification in humans (Ainslie et al., 2001). The British Dietetic Association have claimed that “increasing wholegrains, fruit, and vegetables, and reducing fat intake are moderately effective in reducing hot flushes.” They found these effects were also larger for women who also lost weight too. Additionally, some evidence suggests having a healthy gut microbiome may affect hormone levels. To optimise your gut health, it is recommended to eat 30 different plant foods each week (BDA, 2019). This includes wholegrains, such as beans, lentils, nuts, seeds, herbs and spices. Even dark chocolate (>70% cocoa) and tofu count. The key here is variety. When purchasing peppers, purchase a selection of red, green, orange and yellow rather than just red. These will count as 4 (for 4 colours) plant points. Additionally, consuming fermented foods regularly such as sauerkraut, kimchi and kefir can improve our gut health. Research shows that a Mediterranean style diet protects bone density, reduces the risk of heart disease, and supports a healthy diet at menopause (BNF, 2022). The Mediterranean style diet includes a diet rich in whole foods, such as fruits, vegetables, wholegrains, nuts, seeds, legumes, olive oil and fish. Plant oestrogens, found in plants, such as soya beans, flax seeds and linseeds, may help at menopause as they help our gut bacteria (BDA, 2019). They do not feed the gut like fibre, but they use gut bacteria to be converted into compounds that mimic estrogen. This helps to reduce symptoms like hot flushes in some women. Cholesterol tends to rise at menopause; this can affect your heart health (BDA, 2019). Read blog on Nutrition for Heart Health to make sure you are protecting your heart health. Food habits Sometimes it is not what you eat, but how you eat. Your behaviour and habits surrounding food can affect food choices and how much you eat. Creating intention with mealtimes, such as preparing a food shop with foods that make you feel good ensures you have those foods accessible when it comes to cooking. Read blog ‘Do you need to change your behaviour around food?’ to read about: 10 tips to improve your symptoms with dietary changes: Sample meal plan Breakfast: Yoghurt with my Pecan, Almond & Cinnamon Granola Lunch: My Rice Buddha Bowl Dinner: My Salmon, lemony asparagus, roasted vegetables and mash Snacks: My Crunchy Chocolate Quinoa Bites, my Delicious Veggie Sausage Rolls Drinks: Water, unsweetened decaffeinated tea or coffee and Kombucha- a drink containing probiotics, meaning it feeds your gut. Look out for no added sugar varieties Conclusion

Do you need to change your behaviour around food? Written by Millie Rose Introduction to behavior change and food Healthy eating isn’t just about knowing what‘s good for you, it’s also about changing the habits and behaviour that shape your food choices. The way we think, the people around us, and even the environment we live in all play a big role in what ends up on our plates. In this blog, we’ll explore: Psychology of Food Choices Psychology looks at why we choose the foods we do. It’s powerful because small changes in how we think or what we’re surrounded by can shift our eating patterns. One important idea here is cognitive bias. This means automatic errors in thinking that affect how we see food and the choices we make, often without realising it (Da Silva, Gupta and Monzani, 2023). Simply, our brain sometimes tricks us into making food choices that don’t always match our long-term goals. Cognitive biases often show up in emotional eating (my blog on intuitive vs mindful eating may be helpful). This is when we eat to try and change how we feel rather than because we’re hungry. Emotional eating is guided by feelings rather than hunger cues, and it can have a big impact on our food decisions (Betancourt-Núñez et al., 2022). It can also reduce appetite at first, but then lead to hunger and overeating later in the day (Betancourt-Núñez et al., 2022). 30% have increased appetite when experiencing a negative emotion48% have decreased appetite when facing a negative emotion22% appetite doesn’t change when facing a negative emotion(Betancourt-Núñez et al., 2022) Habit Formation and Breaking Bad Eating Habits Food habits can form at any time, from childhood into adulthood. There are many factors to forming habits, such as work pattern, taste and texture preferences, culture, budgets and surrounding environment (Fisberg, Giogia and Maximino, 2023). There are two types of behaviour: Habitual: a repeated behaviour cued by the environment/external stimuli (Brown, 2024), they are automatic or unconsciousNon-habitual: a behaviour followed after consideration, they are deliberate and conscious (Wood, Quinn and Kashy, 2002) Habitual problems can be problematic. But why? 4 things we can do: The Role of Social Influences in Eating Family, friends and your social circle can impact your food choices as we often mirror what people around us are doing. This may happen with portion sizes, time of eating and food choice. Follow these 3 tips to navigate social influences and peer pressure: Motivation: Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Intrinsic motivation = doing a behaviour because you want to, perhaps because you enjoy it or you want to reap the benefits of the action, for example, increasing your exercise from 1 x week to 3 x week because you want to feel fitter and stronger Extrinsic motivation = doing a behaviour for external rewards or to avoid judgement, for example, following a diet for praise from family or friends (Morris et al., 2022) What drives sustainable behaviour change? Using Nudges to Improve Eating Habits Nudges are subtle prompts that may help you change your eating behaviours. Some nudges that may help you: Practical Tips for Lasting Behaviour Change 2. Identifying the effect of the problem behaviour 3. Identifying a solution to the problem behaviour 4. Identifying the positive effect of changing your problem behaviour 5. Holding yourself accountable 6. Overcoming setbacks Conclusion: Long-term Healthy Eating Embracing food change as a continuous process, not a quick fix, can take time to figure out. However, by making small changes over time to your behaviour and environment, you can make positive changes to your relationship with food and your diet. References Betancourt-Núñez, A., Torres-Castillo, N., Martínez-López, E., De Loera-Rodríguez, C.O., Durán-Barajas, E., Márquez-Sandoval, F., Bernal-Orozco, M.F., Garaulet, M. and Vizmanos, B. (2022). Emotional Eating and Dietary Patterns: Reflecting Food Choices in People with and without Abdominal Obesity. Nutrients, [online] 14(7), pp.1371–1371. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/nu14071371. Brown, R. (2024). Habitual Health-Related Behaviour and Responsibility. Oxford University Press eBooks, [online] pp.210–226.doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780192872234.003.0010. Butcher, L.M., Batt, C., Royce, S., Barron, E., Giglia, R. and Begley, A. (2024). Analysing the behaviour change techniques in an effective food literacy program to inform future program design. Nutrition & Dietetics. doi:https://doi.org/10.1111/1747-0080.12908. Celis-Morales, C., Livingstone, K.M., Marsaux, C.F., Macready, A.L., Fallaize, R., O’Donovan, C.B., Woolhead, C., Forster, H., Walsh, M.C., Navas-Carretero, S., SanCristobal, R., Tsirigoti, L., Lambrinou, C.P., Mavrogianni, C., Moschonis, G., Kolossa, S., Hallmann, J., Godlewska, M., Surwillo, A. and Traczyk, I. (2017). Effect of personalized nutrition on health-related behaviour change: evidence from the Food4Me European randomized controlled trial. International journal of epidemiology, [online] 46(2), pp.578–588. doi:https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyw186. Da Silva, S., Gupta, R. and Monzani, D. (2023). Editorial: Highlights in Psychology: Cognitive bias. Frontiers in Psychology, [online] 14(1242809). doi:https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1242809. Fisberg, M., Gioia, N. and Maximino, P. (2023). Transgenerational transmission of eating habits. Jornal de Pediatria, 100.doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jped.2023.11.007. Morris, L.S., Grehl, M.M., Rutter, S.B., Mehta, M. and Westwater, M.L. (2022). On What Motivates us: a Detailed Review of Intrinsic v. Extrinsic Motivation. Psychological Medicine, 52(10), pp.1–16. Wood, W., Quinn, J. and Kashy, D. (2002). Habits in Everyday Life: Thought, Emotion, and Action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, [online] 83(6). doi:https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.6.1281. Shivani Kachwaha, Kim, S.S., Das, J.K., Rasheed, S., Gavaravarapu, S.M., Pooja Pandey Rana and Menon, P. (2024). Behavior Change Interventions to Address Unhealthy Food Consumption: A Scoping Review. Current Developments in Nutrition, 8(3),pp.102104–102104. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cdnut.2024.102104.

Nutritional Needs of Breastfeeding Mothers Written by nutrition student Millie Rose Introduction WHO and UNICEF recommend that children initiate breastfeeding within the first hour of birth and be exclusively breastfed for the first 6 months of life, meaning no other foods or liquids, including water. From the age of 6 months, children should begin eating safe and adequate complementary foods, whilst continuing to breastfeed for up to 2 years of age or beyond. Breastmilk provides all the energy and nutrients that an infant needs for the first few months of life. It is safe, clean and provides antibodies, which help to protect infants from common childhood illnesses (WHO, 2025) and growth factors, which allow your baby to grow and develop healthily (Ballard and Morrow, 2014). For breastfeeding month, it is time to recognise breastfeeding as a powerful foundation for long-term health, development, and equity. This blog will delve into the nutritional needs of breastfeeding mothers, how diet affects nutrients in breastmilk, breastfeeding myths, and a sample meal plan for breastfeeding mothers. Nutritional Needs of Breastfeeding Mothers What goes into your milk? As a breastfeeding mother, your nutritional status, supplements, and medication you take may affect the quality of your milk, as well as the volume you produce. This is why it is vital you must keep a nutritious diet that supports you and your baby. If you take any supplements or medication, you should consult a lactation consultant or doctor to check they are safe to breastfeed with. It is also important to note that you and your baby may not need supplements, as your diet is usually sufficient. Hydration The initial milk to come through is called colostrum, a thick, yellow liquid. It appears like this because it is highly concentrated with all the nutrients your baby will need (Cleveland Clinic, 2023). Infants should consume 150-200ml per kg of body weight per day until 6 months old (NHS, 2021). This means as the baby’s weight increases and the volume you are feeding to your baby increases, your hydration requirements will increase too. You may need to have an extra drink of water while you are breastfeeding. See Nutrition and Hydration Week Blog for some simple tips on how to increase your fluid intake. Nutrition While you are breastfeeding, you do not need to follow a specific diet, however it is recommended to eat a variety of foods to make up a healthy diet. Eating a wide variety of foods including carbohydrates, protein, fats, fibre, fruit and vegetables ensures diversity of nutrients, feeds your gut microbiome and gives you enough energy to sustain motherhood. Try to eat the rainbow, adding different vegetables, fruits, legumes (such as beans, chickpeas, lentils), grains (such as rice, wheat, oats, quinoa, rye), nuts, seeds, herbs, and spices to your meals (NHS, 2020) In the UK, it is difficult to get enough Vitamin D from your diet alone. If you are breastfeeding, it is advised you take a 10mcg Vitamin D supplement in the winter months; October to March when sun exposure is limited. Exclusively breastfed babies and babies who receive less than 500ml of formula per day are advised to take 8.5-10mcg vitamin D every day, until they are 1 years of age. Children over the age of 1 year and adults are advised to take 10mcg vitamin D daily (NHS, 2025). Iron – Breastmilk contains only a small amount of iron, so your baby will rely on stores passed through the placenta before birth. If there is a chance you were iron deficient during your pregnancy, which may mean your babies iron stores are low, you should consider taking an iron supplement while breastfeeding, as well as consulting a doctor to check your baby for an iron deficiency. Calcium – There is a higher need for calcium when breastfeeding. This is because of the demand for calcium in breast milk which supports the infants growth and development. A supplement is not usually necessary, but you may wish to consider adding more calcium into your diet (NHS, 2020). Include foods such as dairy, fish with bones such as sardines, tofu, green leafy vegetables such as broccoli or kale, nuts and seeds. Considerations while breastfeeding Allergens If any sensitivities are found in your baby, these should be eliminated from your diet, as there may be traces in your milk. However, if you do not notice any sensitivities, you should continue to include allergens in your diet, including cow’s milk, eggs, and nuts (NHS, 2020). Alcohol It is recommended to avoid drinking alcohol while you breastfeed your baby. However, if you do drink alcohol, it is recommended to avoid feeding your baby breastmilk for at least 2 hours and throw away milk produced during this time (NHS, 2022). Caffeine It is recommended that you do not exceed 1 caffeine drink or 300mg per day, while breastfeeding. This may include coffee, tea, fizzy drinks, energy drinks and chocolate (NHS, 2025). An alternative could include 150ml of fruit juice, decaffeinated drinks, or sparkling water. Myths Current advice is to include allergens in your diet unless you or your baby are allergic to them. There is not sufficient evidence to show eating allergens causes allergies in your baby (Lodge et al, 2015). Signs of a baby having an allergic reaction include eczema, hives, vomiting, diarrhoea, and respiratory issues. If your baby shows signs of a mild reaction, including rashes, remove the trigger, if known from your diet, and observe in case of worsening symptoms. If your baby shows signs of a serious reaction, including difficulty breathing, a swollen face and becoming limp, call 999 and state anaphylaxis (NHS, 2024). 2) Breastmilk does not have enough nutrients Breastmilk contains energy and all the nutrients needed for the first 6 months of life (WHO, 2025). Your health visitor should identify that your baby is putting on enough weight and look out for signs of deficiencies. 3) “There is no difference between breast milk and formula” Formula mimics breast milk, however, it

Changes in cravings, hunger and diet during the menstrual cycle Introduction Many women experience changes in appetite and cravings at different parts of their cycle, but why is this? This blog will explore hormonal changes during the menstrual cycle and their impact on your appetite, cravings and dietary intake, and how this change is based on where you are in your menstrual cycle. Read until the end for some tips to improve your dietary habits during your cycle. What phases are there in the menstrual cycle? (Image, Clue, 2019) The menstrual cycle starts on the first day of your period and ends the day before your next period begins. There are different phases in the menstrual cycle; follicular phase (days 1-14) and luteal phase (days 14-28). Our hormone levels fluctuate throughout our cycle therefore potentially having an effect on our diet, mood, digestion, libido, skin, headaches etc. Please note: a cycle from 21-35 days is considered normal 1) Menstrual phase – also known as your period At the end of your cycle and at the start of menstruation, estrogen and progesterone levels drop. During this phase you may experience symptoms such as abdominal muscle cramping, mood swings, and tiredness. Changes to cravings, hunger and diet in the menstrual phase: Cravings: You may experience an increase in cravings for sugary or fatty foods. This is because when estrogen drops, serotonin also drops, which may increase the want for comfort foods, to raise serotonin temporarily (Dye and Blundell, 1997). Hunger: Your hunger may decrease slightly. This is because progesterone and estrogen have lowered appetite as the body is more sensitive to leptin, the hormone which makes you feel full (Hirschberg, 2012). Diet: See recipes here 2) Follicular phase – the first day of your period to ovulation, it overlaps with the menstrual phase During this phase, there is a surge in estrogen, to prepare the body for a potential pregnancy. The symptoms will overlap with the menstrual phase and should reduce when the menstruation finishes, leaving you with more energy and improved mood. Changes to cravings, hunger and diet in the follicular phase Cravings and Hunger: After menstruation, cravings and hunger also reduce due to rising and lowering estrogen levels and low progesterone levels (Hirschberg, 2012). Additionally, leptin sensitivity increases, reducing hunger; this also increases serotonin, reducing cravings and emotional eating (Dye and Blundell, 1997) (Klump et al., 2014). Diet: Continue eating a varied and balanced diet including: 3) Ovulation phase – the period of your cycle where you are fertile During this phase, there is a rise in leuitenising hormone (LH), triggering an egg to be released and a slightly raised temperature. After ovulation, estrogen drops. Some women experience symptoms, such as mild abdominal cramping and mood changes. Changes to cravings, hunger and diet in the ovulation phase Cravings and Hunger: When estrogen is at its highest, before ovulation, leptin sensitivity is enhanced, so there is less hunger, fewer cravings for sugary or fatty foods, so better food choices are likely. However, after ovulation, the opposite happens as estrogen falls, leading to more hunger and cravings (Dye and Blundell, 1997) (Klump et al., 2014). Diet: Intake at the start of the ovulation phase may be lower than the end of the ovulation phase, depending on when the egg is released during the phase. 4) Luteal phase During this phase, progesterone and estrogen increase again, if pregnancy does not occur, these fall again. Additionally, you may experience pre-menstrual symptoms (PMS), which causes symptoms such as bloating, mood changes, changes in food cravings and you may have trouble sleeping. This is caused by the fall in hormones (Watson, 2018). Changes to cravings, hunger and diet in the luteal phase Cravings and hunger: As progesterone and estrogen increase, hunger and cravings increase (Dye and Blundell, 1997). Progesterone is highest before our period. Diet: Due to higher cravings and hunger you are more likely to increase your food intake. This was shown in a study, where they found that women consume 180 kcal more during their luteal phase, in comparison to their follicular phase (Rogan and Black, 2022) Did you know? It is thought that over 90% of women experience at least one premenstrual symptom, and around 48% of people experience PMS (NICE, 2024). This is why it is vital that we understand the impact these symptoms have on our diet and learn ways to work with it, not against it! There is a higher desire for caloric foods, foods high in fats, sugar and salt during the luteal phase compared to the follicular phase. However, the total intake of calories, macro and micronutrients didn’t fluctuate (Souza et al., 2018). Current studies do not consider psychological factors enough. You may notice changes to your cravings, hunger and diet due to symptoms, in addition to hormonal changes. For example, abdominal cramping during your period may suppress your appetite or women who experience PMS may experience increased consumption of comfort foods when they experience mood changes (emotional eating). Does this change throughout my life? From when you first start your periods, also known as the menarche, to when your periods stop, also known as the menopause, your periods may change, and so may your cravings, hunger and diet. This is due to changing hormones during your fertile years heading towards perimenopause. However, your cycles may also change when you are postpartum or breastfeeding! Did you know? Around ovulation, women are more likely to choose new food options. Women, earlier or later in their cycle, are less likely to explore new foods and stick with known options or comfort foods (Nijboer et al., 2024). This has also been found in animals and is linked to changes in higher estrogen levels around ovulation. As more research is carried out, we will gain more evidence to explain why this is happening! What can you do? You can track what phase of your menstrual cycle you are in by using a tracking app, tracking your temperature or manually recording using

Gestational Diabetes Written by nutrition student Millie Rose Introduction Diabetes week is here bringing awareness to the chronic health condition. There are 3 types of diabetes, including Type 1, Type 2 and Gestational. However, this blog will focus on gestational diabetes and how diet can help manage your blood sugar levels. Read until the end for recipes for women with Gestational Diabetes. Why is this relevant? Gestational Diabetes affects 1 in 20 pregnancies in the UK (Diabetes, 2023). Gestational diabetes can make it difficult to manage blood sugar levels, which may lead to symptoms such as increased thirst and urination, a dry mouth, and tiredness (NHS, 2022). It is important that you learn to manage your blood sugar levels if you have gestational diabetes, for the health of you and your baby. What is gestational diabetes? Gestational diabetes is when blood sugar levels are high during pregnancy. It occurs because the body cannot produce enough insulin to reduce blood sugar levels after eating, leading to spikes in blood sugar that don’t settle. Blood sugar levels usually level out after birth. Who is more likely to get gestational diabetes? (NHS, 2022) Why? These risk factors have a correlation with insulin resistance. A healthy individual will produce insulin when blood sugar rises after eating. The insulin will be responded to, and the blood sugar levels will reduce to a pre-eating level. Insulin resistance is where insulin is produced when blood sugar rises after eating. However, the insulin is not responded to, and the blood sugar levels remain high. Often in gestational diabetes, insulin is produced in response to increasing blood sugar levels; however, it is not responded to, so blood sugar levels remain high. This can be due to placental hormones making insulin less efficient. How is gestational diabetes diagnosed? If you have one or more risk factors for Gestational Diabetes (see list above), you will be screened for Gestational Diabetes earlier in your pregnancy. This is done by an oral glucose test, where a blood test is taken in a fasted state and 2 hours after a glucose drink. However, some women may have high blood sugar levels, which are indicated by symptoms including increased thirst, increased urination, a dry mouth, tiredness or blurred eyesight, which may also prompt earlier testing (NHS, 2022). Gestational Diabetes may also be detected later in your pregnancy. What happens after diagnosis, during pregnancy? You will be given a blood sugar testing kit to measure your blood sugar levels throughout the day, especially after eating. This requires a small finger prick for a drop of blood, allowing you to get a blood sugar reading. Controlling blood sugar levels is vital to reduce the effects of Gestational Diabetes, meaning diet is an important factor to monitor. Continue reading to learn how to manage your blood glucose through your diet. Additionally, being more active can help reduce blood sugar levels. Walking, swimming, and prenatal yoga may be more suitable options during your pregnancy. However, in severe cases insulin injections may be necessary to reduce blood glucose. Additionally, your midwife will talk to you about monitoring what is needed throughout pregnancy and birth. It is recommended to give birth before 41 weeks with gestational diabetes to reduce the risk of complications to you and your baby, so an induction or caesarean section may be considered. (NHS, 2022) What can I do? 1. Swap to wholegrain options How to apply this: 2. Reduce refined sugar How to apply this: 3. Check portion sizes How to apply this: 4. Choose and plan healthier snacks How to apply this: 5. Opt for lower Glycaemic Index foods How to apply this: (Diabetes UK) (Diabetes UK, 2023) Exemplar Meal Guide Breakfast: Overnight oats with figs and honey Lunch: Tahini goddess lunch bowl Dinner: Chorizo and bean stew Snack option 1: Crunchy chocolate quinoa bites Snack option 2: Creamy smooth hummus with cucumber or carrot sticks Snack option 3: Dark chocolate dipped strawberries/fruit What is the impact of Gestational Diabetes after birth? Having Gestational Diabetes during your pregnancy increases the risk of having Type 2 Diabetes, which is lifelong. Women who have had gestational diabetes have their blood sugar levels tested every year to detect whether they are pre-diabetic or diabetic. It is especially important that women who have had gestational diabetes maintain a healthy weight by eating a balanced diet and exercising regularly to prevent development of type 2 diabetes after pregnancy. Continuing the habits in the ‘What Can I do?’ section after birth will also reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes, in which mothers who have had Gestational Diabetes are at a greater risk of developing. References: Buchanan, T.A., Xiang, A.H., & Page, K.A. (2019). Gestational diabetes mellitus. Nature Reviews Disease Primers, 5, Article 47. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41572-019-0098-8 Diabetes UK. Glycaemic Index and Diabetes. [online] Available at: https://www.diabetes.org.uk/living-with-diabetes/eating/carbohydrates-and-diabetes/glycaemic-index-and-diabetes Diabetes UK (2023). Causes of Gestational Diabetes. [online] Diabetes UK. Available at: https://www.diabetes.org.uk/about-diabetes/gestational-diabetes/causes. Diabetes UK (2023). What can I eat with Gestational Diabetes? [online] Diabetes UK. Available at: https://www.diabetes.org.uk/living-with-diabetes/eating/gestational-diabetes Hillier, T.A., Pedula, K.L., Ogasawara, K.K., et al. (2021). A Pragmatic, Randomized Clinical Trial of Gestational Diabetes Screening. New England Journal of Medicine, 384(10), 895–904. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2026028. NHS (2022). Gestational Diabetes. [online] NHS. Available at: https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/gestational-diabetes/. Simmons, D., Immanuel, J., Hague, W.M., et al. (2023). Treatment of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Diagnosed Early in Pregnancy. New England Journal of Medicine, 388(22), 2132–2144. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa2214956. Zhang, C., Rawal, S., & Chong, Y.S. (2016). Risk factors for gestational diabetes: is prevention possible? Diabetologia, 59(7), 1385–1390. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-016-3979-3 Zhu, Y., & Zhang, C. (2016). Prevalence of Gestational Diabetes and Risk of Progression to Type 2 Diabetes: a Global Perspective. Current Diabetes Reports, 16(7), 7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11892-015-0699-x